EVOLUTIONARY QUESTIONS
  • What factors limit the rate of adaptation?
  • How do the availability of adaptive mutations, pleiotropy, and epistasis constrain evolutionary trajectories?
  • How predictable is evolution? 
STUDYING SYSTEM
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An effective way to answer the above questions is to examine cases of convergent evolution at the molecular level. One of the good systems is the parallel evolution of toxin resistance in insects and vertebrates. 

Specifically, my work focus on the following three interactions:
  1. Insects adapted to feeding on, or even sequestering the toxins (cardenolides) from, the toxic plants, e.g. milkweeds. 
  2. Predatory fireflies sequester the toxins (lucibufagins) that are de novo produced by prey fireflies.                                      
  3. Vertebrates that prey on toxic toad (bufadienolides).          

Cardenolides, lucibufagins, and bufadienolides belong to cardiac glycoside, and all target the alpha subunit of Na+, K+-ATPase, which is an important enzyme for all animals. 
​2D structure of Na+, K+-ATPase. Dots indicated known sites to interact with the toxins on the left, which blocks the binding with K+.